Intro to the Human Body

BIOL235 - Exercises
1.1. Anatomy and Physiology Defined, p. 16
- define anatomy and physiology.
  - Anatomy
    - the science of body structures and the relationships among them
    - branches include embryology, developmental biology, cell biology, histology, gross anatomy, systemic anatomy, regional anatomy, surface anatomy, radiographic anatomy, pathological anatomy
    - Dissection (careful cutting apart of body structures to study their relationships)
  - Physiolog'
    - the science of body functions and how the body parts work
    - branches include molecular physiology, neurophysiology, endocrinology, cardiovascular physiology, immunology, respiratory physiology, renal physiology, exercise physiology, pathophysiology
- The structure of a part of the body often reflects its functions
1.2 levels of structural organization, p. 16
- identify the locations of each of the organ systems and major organs of the human body.
  - 11 systems of human organism
    - Integumentary,
    - skeletal,
    - muscular,
    - nervous,
    - endocrine,
    - cardiovascular,
    - lymphatic (immune),
    - respiratory (pulmonary),
    - digestive,
    - urinary,
    - reproductive
- describe the body's 6 levels of structural organization.
  - Chemical - including atoms and molecules, e.g. DNA
    - Atoms (the smallest units of matter participating in chemical reactions)
    - Molecules (2 or more atoms joined together)
  - Cellular Level of Organization - molecules combining to form cells
    - Cell (the basic structural and functional living units of an organism, composed of chemicals; the smallest living units in the human body)
  - Tissue Level of Organization
    - Tissue (groups of cells and the materials surrounding them work together to perform a particular function)
  - Organ level - different types of tissues joining together
    - Organs (structures composed of 2 or more different types of tissues, with specific functions and usually recognizable shapes)
  - System level, and
    - Systems (or organ system, consists of related organs with a common function)
  - Organismal level
    - All the parts of the human body functioning together constitute the total organism (an living individual)
1.3 Characteristics of the Living Human Organism, p. 19
- define the 6 basic (important) life processes of the human body.
  - Metabolism (sum of all chemical processes occurring in the body; with 2 phases - catabolism and anabolism)
    - Catabolism (more balls; breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler components)
    - Anabolism (less balls, building up of complex chemical substances from smaller, simpler components)
    - Digestive processes catabolize proteins in food into amino acids then used to anabolize new proteins making up body structures e.g. muscles and bones.
  - Responsiveness is body's ability to detect and respond to changes
  - Movement (includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, and tiny structures inside cells, e.g. secretory vesicles)
  - Growth (an increase in the size of existing cells, or an increase in the number of cells, or both contributing to an increase in body size)
  - Differentiation (development of a cell from an unspecialized to a specialized status) e.g. red blood cells and some white blood cells arise from the same unspecialized precursor cell in red bone marrow
    - Stem cells (precursor cells that can divide and give rise to cells that undergo differentiation.)
  - Reproduction
    - 1. formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement via cell division; and
    - 1. the production of a new individual through the fertilization of an ovum by a sperm cell to form a zygote, then repeated cell divisions and cell differentiation
1.4 Homeostasis p. 22
- explain the importance of homeostasis and describe the relationship of homeostatic imbalances to disorders.
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- define homeostasis.
  - Homeostasis is maintenance of relatively stable conditions in the body's internal environment due to the ceaseless inter-play of the body's many regulatory system.
    - dynamic: e.g. the level of glucose in blood normally stays between 70-110 mg / 100 ml of blood
- describe the components of a feedback system.
  - A feedback system has 3 basic components
    - a receptor,
      - Receptor, a body structure monitoring changes in a controlled condition and sends input typically in the form of nerve impulses or chemical signals towards a control center, which is an afferent pathway
    - a control center,
      - Control center, in the body sets the narrow range (set point) within which a controlled condition should be maintained;
      - evaluates the input received from receptors; and
      - generate output commands (nerve impulses or hormones or other chemical signals) when needed in an efferent pathway
    - an effector
      - Effector, a body structure receiving output from the control center and producing a response (effect) changing the controlled condition
- contrast the operation of negative and positive feedback systems.
  - Feedback system (feedback loop), a cycle of events where the status of a controlled condition is monitored, evaluated, changed, re-monitored, reevaluated and etc.
    - Controlled condition (controlled variable), monitored variable e.g. body temperature, blood pressure, blood glucose level; can be changed by disruptions called stimulus
  - Negative feedback system reverses a change (stimulus) in a controlled condition, e.g. regulation of blood pressure; the loops are
    - 1. baroreceptors detect higher pressure and send nerve impulses as input to the brain
    - 1. brain interprets the impulses and responds by sending nerve impulses as output to the heart and blood vessels
    - 1. Heart rate decreases and blood vessel dilate => blood pressure decreases to normal
  - Positive feedback system reinforces a change in a controlled condition
    - e.g. normal childbirth
      - First contractions of labor as stimulus
      - Stretch-sensitive nerve cells monitor the amount of stretching of the cervix (controlled condition) and send nerve impulses to the brain
      - pituitary gland in the brain to release the hormone oxytocin (output) into the blood
      - oxytocin causes muscles in the wall of the uterus (effector) to contract more forcefully
      - contractions push the fetus farther down the uterus => stretches the cervix more till the cycle interrupted by the birth of the baby
    - e.g. blood pressure dropping when losing a great deal of blood
      - upon severe blood loss, blood pressure drops and blood cells receive less oxygen and function less efficiently
      - if blood loss continues, heart cells become weaker
      - the pumping action of the heart decreases
      - blood pressure continues to fall => may lead to death without medical intervention
- explain how homeostatic imbalances are related to disorders.
  - Disruptions of Homeostasis (homeostatic imbalance) can lead to disorders, diseases, and even death.
    - Disorder, general term for any abnormality of structure or function.
    - Disease, illness with a definite set of signs and symptoms
    - Symptoms, subjective changes in body functions, not apparent to an observer
    - Signs, objective changes, observable and measurable
- Homeostasis and body fluids
  - an important aspect of Homeostasis is maintaining the volume and composition of body fluids
  - Body fluids (dilute, watery solutions containing dissolved chemicals that are found inside cells and surrounding them) include Intracellular fluid (ICF) within cells and Extracellular fluids outside cells
    - ECF filling the narrow spaces between cells of tissues is interstitial fluid
    - ECF within blood vessels is plasma
    - ECF within lymphatic vessels is Lymph; in and around the brain and spinal cord is Cerebrospinal fluid, in joints is Synovial fluid, of eyes are Aqueous humor and Vitreous body
    - ECF surrounds the cells of the body as internal environment
      The external environment is the space surrounding the entire body.
- Control of Homeostasis
  - nervous system and endocrine system work together or independently to regulate Homeostasis usually through negative feedback system as continually being disturbed
1.5 Basic Anatomical Terminology, p. 27
- describe the anatomical position.
  - Anatomical position, a standard position of reference when describing any region or part of the human body;
    - the subject stands erect facing the observer,
    - with the head level, eyes facing directly forward
    - lower limbs parallel with feet flat on the floor and directed forward;
    - upper limbs at the sides with the palms turned forward
- relate the anatomical names and their corresponding common names for various regions of the human body.
  - Regional Names
    - 5 Principal regions are
      - head,
        
        Head consists of the skull (enclosing and protecting the brain) and the face (the front portion of the head including eyes, nose, mouth, forehead, cheeks, and chin)
      - neck,
        
        Neck supports the head and attaches it to the trunk
      - trunk,
        
        Trunk consists of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis
      - upper limbs, and
        
        Upper limb each attaches to the trunk and consists of the shoulder, armpit, arm (from the shoulder to the elbow), forearm (from the elbow to the wrist), wrist, and hand
      - lower limbs
        
        Lower limb each attaches to the trunk and consists of the buttock, thigh (from the buttock to the knee), leg (from the knee to the ankle), ankle, and foot
    - Anatomical and common names of major parts of the body
      - cephalic (head)
        
        cranial (skull)
        
        frontal (forehead)
        
        temporal (temple)
        
        occipital (base of skull)
        
        facial (face)
        
        orbital or ocular (eye)
        
        cheek (buccal)
        
        otic (ear)
        
        nasal (nose)
        
        oral (mouth)
        
        mental (chin)
        
        cervical (neck)
      - upper limb
        
        axillary (armpit)
        
        scapular (shoulder blade)
        
        vertebral (spinal column)
        
        manual (hand)
        
        digital or phalangeal (fingers)
        
        dorsum (back of hand)
        
        palmar or volar (palm)
        
        pollex (thumb)
        
        carpal (wrist)
        
        olecranal or cubital (back of elbow)
        
        antecubital (front of the elbow)
        
        antebrachial (forearm)
        
        brachial (arm)
        
        inguinal (groin)
        
        thoracic (chest)
        
        mammary (breast)
        
        sternal (breastbone)
        
        umbilical (navel)
      - trunk
        
        dorsal (back)
        
        lumbar (loin)
        
        pubic (pubis)
        
        perineal (region of anus and external genitals)
        
        gluteal (buttock)
        
        sacral (b/w hips)
        
        coxal (hip)
      - lower limb
        
        femoral (thigh)
        
        patellar (anterior surface of knee)
        
        popliteal (hollow behind knee)
        
        crural (leg)
        
        sural (calf)
      - pedal (foot)
        
        tarsal (ankle)
        
        digital or phalangeal (toes)
        
        dorsum (top of foot)
        
        hallux (great toe)
        
        plantar (sole)
        
        calcaneal (heel)
- define the anatomical planes, anatomical sections, and directional terms used to describe the human body.
  - Directional terms
    - superior = toward the head
      - inferior = away from the head
    - anterior = nearer to or at the front of the body
      - posterior = nearer to or at the back of the body
    - medial = closer to the midline (an imaginary vertical line dividing the body into equal right and left sides)
      - lateral = farther from the midline
    - intermediate = b/w 2 structures, e.g. the transverse colon is intermediate to the ascending and descending colons
    - ipsilateral = on the same side of the body as another structure
      - contralateral = on the opposite side of the body from another structure
    - proximal = closer to the attachment of a limb to the trunk or origination of a structure
      - distal = farther from the trunk or origination of a structure
    - superficial = toward or on the surface of the body
      - deep = away from the surface of the body
  - Planes and sections
    - A plane is an imaginary flat surfaces (passing thru the body parts) dividing the body or organ to visualize interior structures.
    - Sagittal plane (a vertical plane dividing the body or an organ into right and left sides)
      - Midsagittal plane (median plane) passes thru the midline of the body or an organ, dividing it into equal right and left sides.
      - Parasagittal plane not passing thru the midline but instead dividing the body or an organ into unequal right and left sides
    - Transverse plane (cross-sectional plane, horizontal plane; divides the body or an organ into superior aka upper and inferior aka lower portions)
    - Frontal plane (coronal plane) divides the body or an organ into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions
    - Oblique plane passes thru the body or an organ at an oblique angle, not a right angle like sagittal, frontal, or transverse
    - Section, a cut of the body or one of its organs made along a plane, after which they are named midsagittal, frontal, and transverse sections
- outline the major body cavities, the organs they contain, and their associated linings.
  - Body cavities
    - Body cavities are spaces in the body that help enclosing (protect, separate, support) internal organs; separated by bones, muscles, ligaments and other structures
    - Cranial cavity, a hollow space of the head formed by the cranial bones, contains the brain
    - Vertebral canal, formed by the bones of the vertebral column (backbone); contains the spinal cord; continuous with the cranial cavity
    - Meninges are 3 layers of protective tissues lining the cranial cavity and vertebral canal, surround the brain and spinal cord with a shock-absorbing fluid (cerebrospinal fluid)
    - Organs inside the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities are viscera
    - Thoracic cavity, (chest cavity) formed by the ribs, the muscles of the chest, the sternum (breastbone), and the thoracic portion of the vertebral column; divided into
      - the pericardial cavity (a fluid-filled space surrounding the heart)
      - 2 fluid-filled spaces called pleural cavities each containing a lung
    - Mediastinum is the central part of the thoracic cavity
      - b/w the lungs, extending from the sternum to the vertebral column, from the 1st rib to the diaphragm;
      - containing all thoracic viscera (heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus, and several large blood vessels to and from the heart) except the lungs
    - Diaphragm, a dome-shaped muscle separating the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity
    - Abdominopelvic cavity, extends from the diaphragm to the groin, encircled by the abdominal muscular wall and the bones & muscles of the pelvis, divided into:
      - Abdominal cavity contains the stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine and most of the large intestine
      - Pelvic cavity containing urinary bladder, portions of the large intestine, and internal organs of the reproductive system
    - Organs inside and thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities are called viscera
  - A membrane is a thin, pliable tissue that covers, lines, partitions or connects structures, e.g. serous membrane
    - slippery, double-layered membrane lining the wall of the thorax and abdomen,
    - covering the viscera within the thoracic and abdominal cavities,
    - not open directly to the exterior
    - Pleura is the serous membrane of the pleural cavities
    - Pericardium is the serous membrane of the pericardial cavity
    - Peritoneum is the serous membrane of the abdominal cavity
      - Retroperitoneal organs (posterior to the peritoneum)
        
        kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas,
        
        duodenum of the small intestine,
        
        ascending and descending colons of the large intestine, and
        
        portions of the abdominal aorta and inferior vena cava
- 2 Terms describing a reclining body:
  - prone position where body lies facedown and
  - supine position where body lies faceup
- Abdominopelvic regions & quadrants
  - Abdominopelvic region, in anatomical studies, describe the location of abdominal and pelvic organs; 2 horizontal (subcostal thru the lowest level of 10th costal cartilages; transtubercular line thru the superior margin of the iliac crest of hip bone) and 2 vertical lines (left and right midclavicular line thru the midpoints of clavicles medial to nipples) partition the abdominopelvic cavity into 9 regions
    - right hypochondriac, epigastric (majority of liver), left hypochondriac,
    - right lumbar, umbilical, left lumbar,
    - right inguinal (iliac), hypogastric, left inguinal (iliac)
  - Abdominopelvic quadrants, in clinical studies, locate the site of abdominopelvic abnormality; a midsagittal line (median line) and a transverse line (transumbilical line) crossing at the umbilicus divide the abdominopelvic cavity into quadrants (4)
    - right upper quadrant (RUQ),
    - Left upper quadrant (LUQ, one of abdominopelvic quadrants where the kidney would be found)
    - right lower quadrant (RLQ),
    - left lower quadrant (LLQ)